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summarize this “Among congenital malformations, neural tube defects (NTDs) are the second most common group of human birth defects [1]. It was estimated that 260,100 pregnancies were affected by NTDs globally in 2015, with an average prevalence of 1.9 cases per 1000 live births [2]. This group of congenital anomalies is divided into open defects, such as anencephaly and myelomeningocele; closed defects, like spina bifida; and herniations, including meningocele and encephalocele [3]. Toxics 2025, 13, 34 https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010034 Toxics 2025, 13, 34 2 of 26 These neural disturbances occur due to a failure in neurulation, which takes place between days 17 and 28 post-fertilization in humans. During this process, the neuropores progressively fuse, completing the neural tube closure. Different types of NTDs correspond to the site where neurulation was disrupted [4]. Most congenital malformations are not linked to a single cause; instead, they arise from the interaction of multiple genetic and environmental factors within a complex etiopathogenesis [5]. Although the pathophysiology of NTDs is not fully understood, several risk factors have been reported: chromosomal syndromes, folic acid insufficiency during the first trimester, maternal diabetes, exposure to valproic acid, and maternal obesity, among others [6]. Furthermore, exposure to organophosphates (OPs), vinclozolin, triazines, and metolachlor has been suggested to increase the risk of teratogenicity

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